Injury prevention

golf isn't
usually thought of as a strenuous or physically deman

ding sport,
compared with other sporting activities like soccer, footy, or basketball. it does, however, require a coordinated movement of coordinated muscles. ^[19] the lack of coordination in one’s bodily movement may easily cause a tear or strain in the golfer’s tendon or ligament.

golf injuries may be due to either improper technique, golfing equipment, conditioning, or a combination of any of these elements.

the common causes of golf injuries include the following: ^[20]

• overuse – caused by hours of practice
• mis-hits or duffs – hitting the ground during a swing
• poor swing mechanics
• over swinging
• not doing warm-up exercises
• wrong grip

the body’s soft tissues and upper body joints are the most vulnerable parts of a golfer’s body which are prone to injury. soft tissues would comprise of the muscles, ligaments, and tendons; while the latter include the back, elbows, wrists, and shoulders. all golfers are prone to injuries, although not necessarily resulting from the same causes. professional golfers would more likely have overuse injuries due to long hours of practice. injuries of amateur golfers, on the other hand, are likely the result of the lack of proper conditioning.

common injuries^[21]

• back pain – this may be a result of the great stress that is
  
  placed on a golfer’s back during a swing
• tennis elbow and golf elbow – both problems occur in the area in the upper arm near the elbow, but a tennis elbow occurs on the outside of the upper arm while a golf elbow is soreness on the inside.
• shoulder pain
• carpal tunnel syndrome – this medical condition is a stress disorder that involves the hands’ nerves
• dequervain’s tenosynovitis – this syndrome causes pain in the wrist, near the thumb’s base, and is caused by an inflammation of the sheath surrounding the tendons that control the thumb
• knee pain
• trigger finger – results from the inhibition of the flexor tendon sheath and causes fingers to lock up
• wrist impaction syndrome – this happens when the wrist’s bones hit each other as a result of repetitive movements
• ecu tendon subluxation – the snapping ecu syndrome is a result of the ecu wrist tendon dislocating or sliding in and out of its groove ^[22]
• hamate bone fracture – can be identified through numbness in the ring and pinky fingers ^[23]
• blisters - these often form on the hands of golfers who have
  
  an improper swing. a blister located in different spots will help diagnose what is wrong with the grip and swing of a golfer. blisters on the feet,
  the heel, are also common, usually from lack of socks.

preventing golf injuries

like other sporting activities, proper warm-up exercises aid in the prevention of injuries. to avoid injuries resulting from muscle overuse, a significant amount of rest is important,
for professional golfers. getting assessment from a golfing coach and taking some lessons would also greatly lessen the chances of an individual in encountering an injury. the following are general preventive guidelines that may be applied in order to lessen the threat of a golfing injury: ^[24]

• back pains may be prevented by rotating the shoulder and hips by the same amount during a golf swing. it's
  also important to keep the spine vertical during the follow-through
• shoulder injuries may be prevented with proper swing techniques which include: (1) shortening the backswing, (2) strengthening of shoulder muscles, (3) strengthening of chest and back muscles, and (4) improvement of swing techniques.
• preventing hand, wrist, and elbow injuries can be as simple as using proper golfing equipment. this may include selecting larger grips, using softer or neutral grips, using a club of appropriate length, and selecting irons with large heads and graphite shafts to reduce the vibration. it would also help to take part in exercises that strengthen the forearm muscles. ^[25]

Environmental impact

environmental impact

environmental concerns over the use of land for golf courses have grown over the past 50 years. specific concerns include the amount of water and chemical pesticides and fertilizers used for maintenance, as well as the destruction of wetlands and other environmentally important areas during construction. a notable toxic chemical used on golf courses is diazinon; however, this substance was banned in the united states as of the year 2004.

these, along with health and cost concerns, have led to significant research into more environmentally sound practices and turf grasses. the modern golf course superintendent is often trained in the uses of these practices and grasses. this has led to some mitigation in the amount of chemicals and water used on courses. the turf on golf courses is an excellent filter for water and has been used in many communities to cleanse grey water, such as incorporation of bioswales. people continue to oppose golf courses for environmental and human survival reasons, as they impede corridors for migrating animals and sanctuaries for birds and other wildlife. in fact, the effective non-native monoculture of golf courses systematically destroys biodiversity.^[22]

a major result of modern equipment is that today's players can hit the ball much further than previously. in a concern for safety, modern golf course architects have had to lengthen and widen their design envelope. this has led to a ten percent increase in the amount of area that is required for golf courses today. at the same time, water restrictions placed by communities have forced courses to limit the amount of maintained turf grass. while most modern 18-hole golf courses occupy as much as 60 hectares (150 acres) of land, the average course has 30 hectares (75 acres) of maintained turf. (sources include the national golf foundation and the golf course superintendents association of america [gcsaa].)

deer on a golf course.

golf courses can be built on sandy areas along coasts, abandoned farms, strip mines and quarries, deserts and forests. many western countries have instituted significant environmental restrictions on where and how courses can be built.^[23][24]

in some parts of the world, attempts to build courses and resorts have led to significant protests along with vandalism and violence by both sides. although golf is a relatively minor issue compared to other land-ethics questions, it has symbolic importance as it is

a sport normally associated with the wealthier westernized population, and the culture of colonization and globalization of non-native land ethics. resisting golf tourism and golf's expansion has become an objective of some land-reform movements,
in the philippines and indonesia.

in saudi arabia, golf courses have been constructed on nothing more than oil-covered sand. however, in some cities such as dhahran, modern, grass golf courses have been built recently. in coober pedy, australia, there's
a famous golf course that consists of nine holes dug into mounds of sand, diesel and oil, with no grass anywhere on the course. players carry a small piece of astroturf from which they tee the ball. in new zealand it is

not uncommon for rural courses to have greens fenced off and sheep graze the fairways. at the 125-year-old royal colombo golf club in sri lanka steam trains, from the kelani valley railway, run through the course at the 6th hole.

[edit] alternative golf courses

extreme golf is typically played on environmentally sustainable alternatives to traditional courses. a cross between hiking and golfing, the course layout exposes players to a wide range of natural obstacles and challenging terrains.

based on the growing popularity of the u.x. open alternative golf tournament the extreme golf course features un-mowed meadows and forest instead of fairways, with "goals" scored on temporary greens (a circle 6 metres (20 ft) in diameter).^[25]

Professional golf

golf is played professionally in man

y different countries. the majority of professional golfers work as club or teaching professionals, and only compete in local competitions. a small elite of professional golfers are "tournament pros" who compete full time on international "tours".

golf tours

tiger woods, who's
currently the leading professional golfer in the world.^[14]

main article: professional golf tours

there are at least twenty professional golf tours, each run by a pga or an independent tour organisation, which is responsible for arranging events, finding sponsors, and regulating the tour. typically a tour has "members" who are entitled to compete in most of its events, and also invites non-members to compete in some of them. gaining membership of an elite tour is highly competitive, and most professional golfers never achieve it.

the most widely known tour is the pga tour, which attracts the best golfers from all the other men's tours. this is due mostly to the fact that most pga tour events have a first prize of at least usd 800,000. the european tour, which attracts a substantial number of top golfers from outside north america, ranks second to the pga tour in worldwide prestige. some top professionals from outside north america play enough tournaments to maintain membership on both the pga tour and european tour. there are several other men's tours around the world.

golf is unique in having lucrative competition for older players. there are several senior tours for men 50 and older, the best known of which is the u.s.-based champions tour.

there are six principal tours for women, each based in a different country or continent. the most prestigious of these is the u.s.-based lpga tour.

all of the leading professional tours for under-50 players have an official developmental tour, in which the leading players at the end of the season will earn a tour card on the main tour for the following season. examples are:

• pga tour: nationwide tour
• european tour: challenge tour
• japan golf tour: japan challenge tour
• lpga tour: futures tour
• ladies european tour: telia tour (operates only in sweden, but feeds directly to the let)

men's major championships

main article: men's major golf championships

the major championships are the four most prestigious men's tournaments of the year. in current chronological order they are

:

• the masters
• u.s. open
• the open championship (referred to in north america as the british open)
• pga championship

the fields for these events include the top several dozen golfers from all over the world. the masters has been played at augusta national golf club in augusta, georgia since its inception in 1934. it is the only major championship that is

played at the same course each year. the u.s. open and pga championship are played at various courses around the united states, while the open championship is played at various courses in the uk.

the number of major championships a player accumulates in his career has a
large impact on his stature in the sport. jack nicklaus is widely regarded as the greatest golfer of all time, largely because he's
won a record 18 professional majors, or 20 majors in total if his two u.s. amateurs are included. tiger woods, who may be the only golfer in the foreseeable future likely to challenge nicklaus's record, has won 13 professional majors (16 total if his three u.s. amateurs are included), all before the age of 32. (to put this total in perspective, nicklaus had won nine professional majors and two u.s. amateurs at the same age, and did not win his 13th professional major until he was 35.) woods also came closest to winning all four current majors in one season (known as a grand slam completed first by bobby jones) when he won them consecutively across two seasons: the 2000 u.s. open, open championship, and pga championship; and the 2001 masters. this feat has been frequently called the tiger slam.

prior to the advent of the pga championship and the masters, the four majors were the u.s. open, the u.s. amateur, the open championship, and the british amateur. these are the four that bobby jones won in 1930 to become the only player ever to have earned a grand slam.

women's major championships

main article: women's major golf championships

women's golf does not have a globally agreed set of majors. the list of majors recognized by the dominant women's tour, the lpga tour in the u.s., has changed several times over the years, with the last change in 2001. like the pga tour, the (u.s.) lpga^[15] currently has four majors:

• kraft nabisco championship
• lpga championship
• u.s. women's open
• women's british open

only the last of these is also recognized by the ladies european tour. the other event that it recognizes as a major is the evian masters, which is not considered a major by the lpga (but is co-sanctioned as a regular lpga event). however, the significance of this is limited, as the lpga is far more dominant in women's golf than the pga tour is in mainstream men's golf. for example, the bbc has been known to use the u.s. definition of "women's majors" without qualifying it. also, the ladies' golf union, the governing body for women's golf in the uk and republic of ireland, states on its official website that the women's british open is "the only women’s major to be played outside the u.s."^[16] for its part, the ladies european tour tacitly acknowledges the dominance of the lpga tour by not scheduling any of its own events to conflict with the three lpga majors played in the u.s.

the second-richest women's tour, the lpga of japan tour, does not recognize any of the u.s. lpga or european majors. it has its own set of three majors. however, these events attract little notice outside japan.

senior major championships

main article: senior major golf championships

like women's golf, senior (50-and-over) men's golf does not have a globally agreed set of majors. the list of senior majors on the u.s.-based champions tour has changed over the years, but always by expansion; unlike the situation with the lpga, no senior major has lost its status. the champions tour now recognizes five majors:

• senior pga championship
• u.s. senior open
• senior british open
• the tradition
• senior players championship

of the five events, the senior pga is by far the oldest, having been founded in 1937. the other events all date from the 1980s, when senior golf became a commercial success as the first golf stars of the television era, such as arnold palmer and gary player, reached the relevant age. the senior british open was not recognized as a major by the champions tour until 2003.

the european seniors tour recognizes only the senior pga and the two senior opens as majors. however, the champions tour is arguably more dominant in global senior golf than the u.s. lpga is in global women's golf.

Golfing terms

these terms may often be heard from an experienced golfer:

• apron, fringe, birm, or edge of green : the band of grass at the approach to the green that is longer than the green itself.

• barnes wallace : this is when a ball bounces across a water hazard.

• bite/munch/take a seat : this is a phrase often heard from golfers after a shot towards the green has been taken, in which they would like the ball to stop or slow down. these are phrases used especially among professionals.

• dance floor : an alternative name for the putting green.

• fore : a golfer will yell "fore" at the top of his/her lungs to warn other players that they hit a bad shot and the ball is headed their way. this is the standard warning system in golf.

• perfect round : colloquial term used to describe a score of 54 on a par 72 course or 52 on a par 70 (all 18 holes played at one under par). the perfect round has never been achieved in competition and remains a lifetime goal for many professionals.

• sandbagger : someone who, when playing a game in which they know they will win, inflates their score by playing slightly worse intentionally in order to raise their handicap.

• sandie : similar to an "up & down", refers to chipping onto the green from the bunker and 1-putting.

• stymie : this was a common phrase said before the allowance of ball markers. it occurred when a golfer's ball was blocking the other's line of putt. this is now avoided since the allowance of ball markers.

• taxi : this is a term which may be shouted when a golf ball races past the hole, in the intention of holing it.

Hitting a golf ball

to hit the ball, the club is swung at the motionless ball on the ground (or wherever it's
come to rest) from a side stance. many golf shots make the ball travel through the air (carry) and roll out for some more distance (roll).

every shot is a compromise between length and precision, and long shots are often less precise than short ones. obviously, a longer shot may result in a better score if it helps reduce the total number of strokes for a given hole, but the benefit may be more than outweighed by additional strokes or penalties if a ball is lost, out of bounds, or comes to rest on difficult ground. therefore, a skilled golfer must assess the quality of his or her shots in a particular situation in order to judge whether the possible benefits of aggressive play are worth the risks.

poor shots

there are several possible causes of poor shots, such as poor alignment of the club, wrong direction of swing, and off-center hits where the clubhead rotates around the ball at impact. many of these troubles are aggravated with the "longer" clubs and higher speed of swing. furthermore, the absolute effect of a deviation will increase with a longer shot compared with a short one.

for many people who play golf, the number and variety of poor shots is larger than they would like. consequently, many, many words have been found to describe the shots--some of them are
colourful. some of the more common terms for the poor shots are explained below:

• hook : the ball flight curves sharply to the left for a right-handed player (to the right for left-handed players). a severe hook is commonly called a duck-hook or a snap hook.

• slice : the ball curves sharply to the right for a right-handed player (to the left for left-handed players). for beginning golfers this is the typical outcome of most shots. a severe slice is commonly referred to as a banana-slice or a banana-ball.

• pull : for a right-handed player the ball is 'pulled' across the body and flies to the left of the intended target without curvature (the ball flies to the right for left-handed players). a pull-hook indicates that the ball started out left of target and curved even further to the left. a pull-slice means the ball starts out left then curves back to the right.

• push : the opposite of a pull, where the ball is 'pushed' away from the body. the ball flies to the right of the intended target for right-handed players (to the left for left-handed players). a push-slice indicates that the ball started out right of target and curved even further to the right. a push-hook means the ball starts out right then curves back to the left.

• shank : the ball is struck by the hosel or the outer edge of the club
  than the clubface and shoots sharply to the right for a right-handed player.

• thin or blade or skull : the ball is struck with the bottom edge of the club and not its face. this may damage the surface of a golf ball with a soft cover material, and may result in a stinging sensation in one's hands on a cold day.

• fat : a fat shot occurs when the club strikes the ground before the ball. a large divot is usually produced along with a clubface covered in the divot.

• top : the topside of the ball is struck with the blade of the club. the result usually consists of the ball rolling forward on the ground with much topspin.

• sky ball or pop-up : the opposite of a top. this occurs most frequently when teeing the ball up too high, though sometimes a sky ball will occur when the ball is sitting on top of long blades of grass and the club has space to pass under the ball. the top side of the club strikes the bottom side of the ball and forces the ball higher into the air than desired. a true sky ball occurs when the ball travels farther vertically than it does horizontally.

• double-hit : hitting the ball twice in one swing. this occurs most often in chipping or pitching, and is
  rare in any other kind of shot. this is commonly referred to as a t.c. chen, named for the taiwanese golfer who led the 1985 u.s. open by 5 shots on sunday, wherein he double-hit a chip on the fifth hole and made an eight, costing him the championship.

• flyer : this type of shot usually occurs when playing from deep rough. grass blades come between the club face and the ball, preventing the club face from imparting maximum backspin on the ball. this loss of lift from backspin will typically cause a lower, longer shot than a cleanly contacted shot. the resulting flight of the ball is that the target is overshot by 10 or more yards and the ball does not stop as quickly on the green.

• hood : somewhere during the swing the clubface becomes more perpendicular to the ground, or angled more toward the golfer. the clubface may strike the ground first or get caught up in heavy rough. this results in the ball flying lower to the ground than intended and usually resulting in a pull as well.

• wormburner, groundhog killer or sally gunnell : the ball is hit
  low to the ground, or bounces rapidly across the ground, essentially "burning up worms" or hitting groundhogs as it speeds along.

• chili dip : a common miscue while chipping where the ball is flubbed only a few feet forward. sometimes referred to as a chunk.

• foot wedge : an illegal act of literally kicking one's ball to a better location. the character judge smails uses this technique in the movie caddyshack.

• whiff or air shot : missing the ball
  after swinging at it counts as a stroke, usually resulting in embarrassment. may be jokingly referred to as a practice swing.

• iron hooker : holding the club too far forward causing a flicking action which results in a major hook.

• gunnell/top : a gunnell, or top, is a low shot where the club face makes contact with the top of the ball. shots that go ¾ distance in this manner are usually referred to as a 'gunnell', or 'a runner, but not a looker'. the expression originated in england, and is a reference to former olympic hurdler sally gunnell.

• lateral : also known as a shank, occurs when the ball is hit off the hosel resulting in a shot that travels more laterally than forward.

• pulled a ty-ty : when on the tee box and you tee the ball too high and pop it up using a driver. ( known as a pop up.)

the golf swing

tiger woods displaying the textbook position (course: st andrews).

putts and short chips are ideally played without much movement of the body, but most other golf shots are played using variants of the full golf swing. the full golf swing itself is used in tee and fairway shots.

a full swing is a complex rotation of the body aimed at accelerating the club head to a great speed. for a right-handed golfer, it consists of a backswing to the right, a downswing to the left (in which the ball is hit), and a follow through. at address, the player stands with the left shoulder and hip pointing in the intended direction of ball flight, with the ball before the feet. the club is held with both hands (right below left for right-handed players), the clubhead resting on the ground behind the ball, hips and knees somewhat flexed, and the arms hanging from the shoulders. the backswing is a rotation to the right, consisting of a shifting of the player's body weight to the right side, a turning of the pelvis and shoulders, lifting of the arms and flexing of the elbows and wrists. at the end of the backswing the hands are above the right shoulder, with the club pointing more or less in the intended direction of ball flight. the downswing is roughly a backswing reversed. after the ball is hit, the follow-through stage consists of a continued rotation to the left. at the end of the swing, the weight has shifted
entirely to the left foot, the body is fully turned to the left and the hands are above the left shoulder with the club hanging down over the players' back.

the full golf swing is an unnatural, highly complex motion and notoriously difficult to learn. it's
not uncommon for beginners to spend several months practicing the very basics before playing their first ball on a course. it's
usually very difficult to acquire a stable and successful swing without professional instruction and even highly skilled golfers may continue to take golf lessons for many years. one can also purchase or use a new golf simulator that can cost upwards of $50,000.

relatively few golfers play left-handed (i.e., swing back to the left and forward to the right). the percentage of golfers in the u.s. who play left-handed is estimated to be anywhere from 4 percent to 7 percent in the u.s. according to http://www.pga.com/equipment/focus-on/lefthandedequipment050503.cfm. even players who are

strongly left-handed in their daily lives prefer the right-handed golf swing. in the past, this may have been due to the difficulty of finding left-handed golf clubs. today, more manufacturers provide left-handed versions of their club lines, and the clubs are more readily purchased from mail-order and internet catalogues, as well as golf stores. a golfer who plays right-handed, but holds the club left-hand-below-right is said to be "cack-handed". it's
difficult to obtain the same consistency and power with this arrangement as is possible with conventional technique.

besides the physical part, the mental aspect contributes to the difficulty of the golf swing. golfers play against the course, not each other directly, and hit a stationary object, not one put into motion by an opponent. this means that there is never someone to blame but oneself for a bad result, and in most competitive formats there are no teammates to directly help one out. knowledge of this creates a great deal of psychological pressure on the golfer; this pressure exists at all levels of play. even the best professional golfers sometimes succumb to this pressure, such as getting the "yips" (an infamous affliction of bernhard langer) a severe putting disorder caused by uncontrolled muscle spasms of the arms, resulting in a jerking motion during the follow through of the putt causing the ball to go much farther than desired, or having collapses of their full swing (as with ian baker-finch).

a golf ball acquires spin when it's
hit. backspin is imparted for
every shot due to the golf club's loft (i.e., angle between the clubface and a vertical plane). a spinning ball deforms the flow of air around it^[13] similar to an airplane wing; a back-spinning ball therefore experiences an upward force which makes it fly higher and longer than a ball without spin. the amount of backspin also influences the behavior of a ball when it impacts the ground. a ball with little backspin will usually roll out for a few yards/meters while a ball with more backspin may not roll at all, or even roll backwards. sidespin occurs when the clubface is not

aligned perpendicularly to the plane of swing. sidespin makes the ball curve left or right: a curve to the left is a draw, and to the right a fade (for right-handed players). accomplished golfers purposely use sidespin to steer their ball around obstacles or towards the safe side of fairways and greens. but because it's sometimes difficult to control or predict the amount of sidespin, balls may take an undesirable trajectory, such as hook to the left, or slice to the right (for right-handed players).

Rules and other regulations

the rules of golf^[10][11] are internationally standardised and are jointly governed by the royal and ancient golf club of st andrews (r&a), which was founded 1754 and the united states golf association (usga). by agreement with the r&a, usga jurisdiction on the enforcement and interpretation of the rules is limited to the united states and mexico. the national golf associations of other countries use the rules laid down by the r&a and there is

a formal procedure for referring any points of doubt to the r&a.

the underlying principle of the rules is fairness. as stated on the back cover of the official rule book: "play the ball as it lies", "play the course as you find it", and "if you can't do either, do what is fair". some rules state that:

• e
  player is entitled and obliged to play the ball from the position where it's
  come to rest after a stroke, unless a rule allows or deman
  
  ds otherwise (rule 13-1)
• a player must not accept assistance in making a stroke (rule 14-2)
• the condition of the ground or other parts of the course may not be altered to gain an advantage, except in some cases defined in the rules
• a ball may only be replaced by another during play of a hole if it's
  destroyed (rule 5-3), lost (rule 27-1), or unplayable (rule 28), or at some other time permitted by the rules. the player may always substitute balls between the play of two holes.

the decisions on the rules of golf are based on formal case decisions by the r&a and usga and are revised and updated e
other year.

there are strict regulations regarding the amateur status of golfers.^[12] essentially, e
body who has ever received payment or compensation for giving instruction or played golf for money isn't
considered an amateur and may not participate in competitions limited solely to amateurs. however amateur golfers may receive expenses which comply with strict guidelines and they may accept non-cash prizes within the limits established by the rules of amateur status.

in addition to the officially printed rules, golfers also abide by a set of guidelines called golf etiquette. etiquette guidelines cover matters such as safety, fairness, easiness and pace of play, and a player's obligation to contribute to the care of the course. though there are no penalties for breach of etiquette rules, players generally follow the rules of golf etiquette in an effort to improve e
one's playing experience.

Handicap systems

main article: golf handicap

a handicap is a numerical measure of an amateur golfer's ability to play golf over 18 holes. the 2 main formulas used in the game are stroke play (also known as brutto or medal) and match play.

the stroke play formula is an individual way of playing the game as you are competing against the par of the course. the stroke play formula is simply the sum of strokes a player shoots over 18 holes and compares it to the par (or the sum of a theoretical number of strokes per hole added up over 18 holes). the difference between your number of strokes and the par determines your handicap.

the match play formula is a game during which two players play against each other. in other words, your score per hole depends on the other player's score. this formula was - and still is - very much appreciated by golfers as the state of mind is
different from a stroke play game, during which the golfer has to 'secure' each and single of his shots in order to play the lower score (number of strokes) possible over 18 holes. in the contrary, the match play rule will allow the player to approach the course in a more aggressive manner in order to win the hole against his opponent. e.g. p1 plays 4 and p2 plays 5: p1 wins the hole and current score on the tee number 2 would be '1 up'. if p2 would like to mention the status of the score, he would say: '1 down' (each player announces his position towards the game).

the so-called "net" score is a formula commonly preferred by players from different proficiency to play against each other on equal terms. good ones handicap is subtracted from their round score thus making a game even between two players. e.g. player 1's round score: 90, handicap: 20, the course's par: 70, player 2's round score: 100, handicap: 30, overall (par): 70. a players handicap determines the quality of their game making a player with a lower handicap better than one with a higher handicap. however, in practice, motivated and ambitious high handicap players strive to lower their handicaps and thus the current official one they show on their cards might not be their real current level, which consequently might put them in a favourable position when playing 'net' formula games.

handicaps are complicated, but essentially are the average over par of a number of previous rounds, ad
ed for course difficulty. legislations regarding the calculation of handicaps differs among countries and sometimes becomes so complicated that a golfer's handicap might not always mirror his real level of play. for example, swiss handicap rules include the difficulty of the course the golfer is playing on by taking into consideration factors such as the number of bunkers, the length of the course, the difficulty and slopes of the greens, the width of the fairways, and so on.

handicap systems are not

used in professional golf. professional golfers often score several strokes below par for a round and thus have a handicap of 0, subtracting 0 from their round score.